Geography
Mineral and Energy Resources of India
Non-metallic, Atomic and Critical Minerals
Mica, limestone, gypsum, rock phosphate, diamond, uranium, thorium, lithium and India's critical minerals policy (MMDR, NCMM) for CGPSC Prelims and Mains.
Prerequisites
- Metallic Minerals of India: classification of minerals, mineral belts and the geological rule.
- Physiography of India: the Aravallis, the Peninsula and the coastal sands where these minerals occur.
The Hook: A Lithium Block in Korba
Connect
In June 2024, a block at Katghora in Korba district became the first lithium block auctioned in India. Korba is famous for coal, but the batteries of electric vehicles need lithium, cobalt, nickel and graphite, and India imports almost all of them.
Meanwhile the cement plants of Baloda Bazar use limestone, and the fertiliser plants of the country use rock phosphate and gypsum. Which minerals does India have plenty of, which does it lack, and how is the law changing to secure the minerals of the future?
Why it matters: Prelims asks location pairs (Koderma, Jhamarkotra, Jaduguda, Panna) and current policy (critical minerals list, MMDR amendments). Mains GS-III asks about critical minerals, energy transition and mineral policy.
Non-metallic Minerals
| Mineral | Main uses | Where in India | Key facts |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mica (अभ्रक) | Electrical and electronic insulation (it splits into thin sheets, resists heat and high voltage) | Andhra Pradesh (Nellore), Jharkhand (Koderma-Hazaribagh belt), Rajasthan (Ajmer, Bhilwara) | Koderma was historically called India’s “mica capital”. In recent IBM data, Andhra Pradesh reports nearly all crude mica production. Much Jharkhand mica comes from scrap (“dhibra”) collection, linked to child-labour concerns |
| Limestone (चूना पत्थर) | Cement (main use), flux in iron and steel, chemicals | Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu | Rajasthan had the highest share of production in FY 2023-24. India produced about 450 million tonnes in FY 2023-24 |
| Dolomite | Flux in steel, refractories, glass | Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh | Chhattisgarh’s Bhilai belt uses local dolomite |
| Gypsum (जिप्सम) | Cement (setting retarder), plaster of Paris, fertiliser (soil conditioner for alkaline soils) | Rajasthan (Bikaner, Nagaur, Barmer, Jaisalmer) | Rajasthan has almost all of India’s gypsum |
| Rock phosphate | Phosphatic fertilisers (DAP, SSP) | Rajasthan (Jhamarkotra, Udaipur), Madhya Pradesh (Jhabua; Sagar–Lalitpur belt) | India still imports most of its phosphate needs |
| Kyanite, sillimanite | Refractories (furnace linings) | Jharkhand (kyanite), Meghalaya (sillimanite), Odisha | Minerals of the steel industry |
| Diamond (हीरा) | Gems, industrial cutting | Panna (MP): Majhgawan mine of NMDC | India’s only working diamond mine. The historic Golconda diamonds came from the Krishna valley (Andhra Pradesh). Chhattisgarh’s kimberlite at Payalikhand (Gariaband) is not mined |
| Graphite | Electrodes, lubricants, battery anodes | Odisha, Jharkhand (Palamu), Tamil Nadu, Arunachal Pradesh | Now listed as a critical mineral |
| Salt | Food, chemicals | Gujarat (Rann of Kachchh coast), Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan (Sambhar lake) | Gujarat produces most of India’s salt |
Chhattisgarh link
Chhattisgarh’s limestone belt (Raipur, Baloda Bazar-Bhatapara, Durg, Janjgir-Champa) supports one of India’s biggest cement clusters. Its dolomite and limestone also feed the Bhilai Steel Plant as flux. See Mineral Resources and Mining Belts.
Atomic Minerals (परमाणु खनिज)
| Mineral | Source | Where | Key facts |
|---|---|---|---|
| Uranium | Uraninite, pitchblende | Jaduguda (East Singhbhum, Jharkhand): India’s first uranium mine, run by UCIL (Uranium Corporation of India Ltd, 1967); also Turamdih, Bagjata (Jharkhand); Tummalapalle (Kadapa, Andhra Pradesh); Domiasiat (Meghalaya); Rohil (Rajasthan) | India’s uranium is low-grade, so imported uranium also fuels reactors under safeguards |
| Thorium | Monazite in beach sands | Coasts of Kerala (Chavara), Tamil Nadu, Odisha (Chhatrapur), Andhra Pradesh | India has some of the world’s largest thorium resources; IREL (Indian Rare Earths Ltd) processes monazite, which also yields rare earths |
India’s three-stage nuclear programme
Planned by Dr Homi J. Bhabha in the 1950s to use India’s thorium in the long run:
graph LR
A["Stage 1: Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors
Fuel: natural uranium
Output: power + plutonium"] --> B["Stage 2: Fast Breeder Reactors
Fuel: plutonium-uranium
Breeds more fuel; PFBR Kalpakkam"]
B --> C["Stage 3: Thorium-based reactors
Thorium converted to U-233"]- The 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu) attained first criticality on 6 April 2026. This is the formal start of stage 2.
- Stage 3 (thorium at scale) is still in the future.
Critical Minerals (महत्वपूर्ण खनिज)
Critical minerals are minerals essential for the economy and national security whose supply is at risk because they are scarce, concentrated in a few countries, or hard to process. They power the energy transition: lithium, cobalt, nickel and graphite for batteries, rare earths for magnets in motors and wind turbines, and silicon and germanium for solar cells and chips.
| Milestone | Detail |
|---|---|
| KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd), 2019 | Joint venture of NALCO, HCL and MECL to acquire critical mineral assets abroad (e.g. lithium blocks in Argentina) |
| Reasi lithium, February 2023 | GSI reported 5.9 million tonnes of inferred (G3) lithium resources at Salal-Haimana, Reasi district (Jammu and Kashmir). Auction attempts have not succeeded so far |
| List of 30 critical minerals, June 2023 | Released by the Ministry of Mines; includes lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, rare earth elements, tin, tungsten, titanium, silicon, germanium, gallium and others |
| MMDR Amendment Act, 2023 | Centre empowered to auction critical and strategic minerals; six minerals including lithium, beryllium, titanium, niobium, tantalum and zirconium removed from the list of atomic minerals, opening them to private exploration and mining |
| First critical mineral auctions, from November 2023 | Katghora (Korba, Chhattisgarh) became India’s first lithium block auctioned (June 2024) |
| National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM), approved 29 January 2025 | ₹16,300 crore central outlay plus about ₹18,000 crore expected from PSUs, a total of ₹34,300 crore over 2024-25 to 2030-31; exploration at home and abroad, recycling, processing and stockpiling |
Why it matters for India
India meets its iron ore and bauxite needs at home but is heavily import-dependent for lithium, cobalt, nickel and rare-earth processing, where a few countries dominate supply. Securing them is now as strategic as securing oil was in the 20th century.
Mineral Governance in India
| Law or body | Key point |
|---|---|
| Geological Survey of India (GSI), 1851 | Under the Ministry of Mines; headquarters Kolkata; geological mapping and exploration |
| Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), 1948 | Headquarters Nagpur; regulates mining plans and publishes the Indian Minerals Yearbook |
| MMDR Act, 1957 | Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act: the parent law for mining leases |
| MMDR Amendment, 2015 | Auction compulsory for new concessions; District Mineral Foundation (DMF) in every mining district; National Mineral Exploration Trust (NMET) |
| National Mineral Policy, 2019 | Promotes exploration, private investment and sustainable mining |
| MMDR Amendment, 2023 | Critical minerals auctions by the Centre; exploration licence for deep-seated minerals |
| Constitution | Regulation of mines and mineral development is in the Union List (Entry 54) to the extent Parliament declares; otherwise a State subject (Entry 23) |
DMF and PMKKKY
The District Mineral Foundation (जिला खनिज संस्थान न्यास) collects a contribution from mining leaseholders and spends it on people and areas affected by mining, under the Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana (PMKKKY). Chhattisgarh’s mining districts such as Korba, Dantewada and Raigarh receive large DMF funds.
Conservation of minerals
Minerals are non-renewable and take millions of years to form. Conservation means:
- Using low-grade ores through beneficiation technology
- Recycling metals (scrap steel, aluminium, copper, battery metals)
- Using substitutes where possible
- Cutting waste in mining and processing
- Scientific mine closure and reclamation of land
Memory Tricks
Rajasthan's non-metallic store: 'G-P-L-M'
Rajasthan leads in Gypsum, rock Phosphate (Jhamarkotra) and Limestone, plus lead-zinc and Marble. “Rajasthan is the Great Pink Land of Marble.” (Salt is the exception: Gujarat leads.)
Atomic minerals: 'Jharkhand for U, Kerala for Th'
Uranium: Jaduguda (Jharkhand), Tummalapalle (Andhra Pradesh). Thorium: monazite sands of the Kerala coast. Remember “J-Ump to the K-Theatre”.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Reasi (J&K): lithium resource found (2023), not yet auctioned | vs | Katghora (Chhattisgarh): first lithium block auctioned (June 2024) |
| Jaduguda: uranium | vs | Jhamarkotra: rock phosphate |
| Koderma (Jharkhand): mica | vs | Kolar (Karnataka): gold, closed 2001 |
| Panna (MP): diamond, working mine | vs | Payalikhand (CG): diamond occurrence, not mined |
| GSI (1851, Kolkata): exploration | vs | IBM (1948, Nagpur): regulation and yearbook |
| MMDR 2015: auction, DMF, NMET | vs | MMDR 2023: critical minerals, lithium off the atomic list |
| Monazite: thorium and rare earths, beach sands | vs | Uraninite: uranium, hard rock |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “Jharkhand is today India’s largest mica producer.” Risky. Koderma was historically famous, but recent IBM data show Andhra Pradesh reporting nearly all crude mica production.
- “Lithium is being mined in Jammu and Kashmir.” False. Reasi has an inferred resource; auctions have not succeeded so far.
- “Lithium is an atomic mineral reserved for the government.” No longer. The MMDR Amendment, 2023 removed lithium from the atomic minerals list.
- “Thorium comes from Jaduguda.” False. Jaduguda is uranium; thorium comes from monazite beach sands.
- “India’s three-stage programme has reached stage 3.” False. The PFBR (stage 2) reached first criticality only in April 2026.
- “India has a list of 24 critical minerals.” The Ministry of Mines list (June 2023) has 30 critical minerals. The figure 24 refers to the critical and strategic minerals placed in the MMDR Act’s First Schedule for central auction.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- India’s first uranium mine, run by UCIL, is at ________ in Jharkhand.
- Thorium in India is obtained mainly from ________ sands.
- The Indian Bureau of Mines is headquartered at ________.
Answers
- Jaduguda (East Singhbhum).
- Monazite beach sands (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh).
- Nagpur.
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements about critical minerals in India:
- The Ministry of Mines released a list of 30 critical minerals in 2023.
- The MMDR Amendment Act, 2023 removed lithium from the list of atomic minerals.
- Lithium is being commercially mined at Salal-Haimana in Reasi district.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 2 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 1 and 2 only. The list of 30 critical minerals was released in June 2023, and the 2023 amendment removed six minerals, including lithium, from the atomic list. Statement 3 is wrong: Reasi has an inferred resource of 5.9 million tonnes, but its auction has not succeeded and there is no mining.
Q2. Match List I (Place) with List II (Mineral):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Jhamarkotra | 1. Uranium |
| B. Koderma | 2. Diamond |
| C. Jaduguda | 3. Rock phosphate |
| D. Majhgawan (Panna) | 4. Mica |
- (a) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
- (b) A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2
- (c) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
- (d) A-1, B-4, C-3, D-2
Answer and explanation
(a) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2. Jhamarkotra (Udaipur, Rajasthan) is India’s best-known rock phosphate mine. Koderma (Jharkhand) is the historic mica belt. Jaduguda (Jharkhand) is the first uranium mine. Majhgawan in Panna (MP) is NMDC’s diamond mine.
Q3. Which state has almost all of India’s gypsum?
- (a) Gujarat
- (b) Rajasthan
- (c) Tamil Nadu
- (d) Madhya Pradesh
Answer and explanation
(b) Rajasthan. Gypsum is an evaporite mineral found in the dry north-west, in Bikaner, Nagaur, Barmer and Jaisalmer. It is used in cement and plaster of Paris and as a conditioner for alkaline soils.
Q4. The National Critical Mineral Mission, approved in January 2025, has a total outlay (including PSU investment) of about:
- (a) ₹16,300 crore
- (b) ₹19,744 crore
- (c) ₹34,300 crore
- (d) ₹75,021 crore
Answer and explanation
(c) ₹34,300 crore. The mission has a central outlay of ₹16,300 crore plus about ₹18,000 crore expected from PSUs, over 2024-25 to 2030-31. ₹19,744 crore is the outlay of the National Green Hydrogen Mission, and ₹75,021 crore is that of PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana. Option (a) is only the central part.
Q5. Which one of the following is not a feature of the MMDR Amendment Act, 2015?
- (a) Auction as the method for granting new mineral concessions
- (b) Creation of District Mineral Foundations
- (c) Creation of the National Mineral Exploration Trust
- (d) Removal of lithium from the list of atomic minerals
Answer and explanation
(d). Lithium was removed from the atomic minerals list by the 2023 amendment. The 2015 amendment introduced auctions, DMFs and the NMET.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (150–200 words) What are critical minerals? Discuss India’s strategy to secure them, with reference to Chhattisgarh.
Model answer outline
- Intro: Critical minerals are economically vital minerals with supply risk. India’s 2023 list has 30, including lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite and rare earths.
- Why they matter: EV batteries, solar and wind equipment, electronics, defence; India’s net-zero 2070 goal depends on them; supply and processing are concentrated in a few countries.
- Strategy:
- Law: MMDR Amendment 2023: central auctions, lithium off the atomic list, exploration licences.
- Mission: NCMM (2025), ₹34,300 crore over seven years: exploration, processing, recycling, stockpiles.
- Overseas assets: KABIL (lithium in Argentina); partnerships such as the Minerals Security Partnership.
- Recycling of e-waste and batteries.
- Chhattisgarh angle: Katghora (Korba), India’s first lithium block auctioned (2024); tin from Dantewada is also on the critical list.
- Challenges: low-grade resources (Reasi auction failed), processing technology, environmental and tribal concerns.
- Conclusion: Critical minerals are the “new oil”; India must combine domestic exploration with diversified foreign supply.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Mica | Andhra Pradesh (Nellore) leads current production; Koderma (Jharkhand) historic capital |
| Limestone | ~450 MT in FY 2023-24; Rajasthan top producer; main use cement |
| Gypsum | Rajasthan (Bikaner, Nagaur, Barmer) |
| Rock phosphate | Jhamarkotra (Rajasthan); Jhabua, Sagar–Lalitpur (MP) |
| Diamond | Panna (MP), Majhgawan, NMDC: only working mine |
| Uranium | Jaduguda (UCIL, 1967), Tummalapalle (AP), Domiasiat (Meghalaya) |
| Thorium | Monazite beach sands, Kerala and east coast; IREL |
| Three stages | PHWR → Fast Breeder (PFBR first criticality 6 Apr 2026) → Thorium |
| Critical minerals | 30 listed (June 2023) |
| MMDR 2023 | Lithium and 5 others off the atomic list; central auctions |
| Reasi | 5.9 MT inferred lithium (Feb 2023); auction unsuccessful so far |
| Katghora | First lithium block auctioned (June 2024) |
| NCMM | Approved 29 Jan 2025; ₹16,300 cr + ₹18,000 cr = ₹34,300 cr (2024-25 to 2030-31) |
| KABIL | 2019, NALCO + HCL + MECL |
| GSI / IBM | 1851, Kolkata / 1948, Nagpur |
| MMDR 2015 | Auction, DMF, NMET |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- Rajasthan dominates non-metallic minerals (gypsum, rock phosphate, limestone); Andhra Pradesh now leads mica production.
- Uranium comes from Jaduguda and Tummalapalle; thorium from monazite sands, which is why India’s nuclear plan ends in a thorium stage.
- The PFBR at Kalpakkam reached first criticality in April 2026, the start of stage 2.
- Critical minerals (30 listed in 2023) are now central to energy security; the MMDR 2023 amendment and the NCMM (2025) are the main tools.
- Chhattisgarh’s Katghora was India’s first lithium block auctioned; Reasi’s larger resource is still unauctioned.
What’s Next
- Conventional Energy: coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear power
- Non-conventional Energy: solar, wind, bioenergy and green hydrogen, which need critical minerals
- Energy Resources (Science and Technology): the technology behind nuclear and renewable energy
- Mineral Resources and Mining Belts of Chhattisgarh
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