History
The Gandhian Era and Independence (1919–1947)
Partition and Independence (1945–1947)
C.R. Formula, Wavell Plan, INA trials, RIN mutiny, Cabinet Mission, Direct Action, Mountbatten Plan, Indian Independence Act and integration of states.
Prerequisites
- Quit India Movement and the War Years (1939–1945) — the Lahore Resolution, Cripps and the INA
- Constitutional Development (1773–1950) — the Cabinet Mission and Indian Independence Act as constitutional milestones
The Hook: Fourteen States, One Midnight, One New Map
Connect
On 15 August 1947 Raipur, Bilaspur and Durg woke up free, as districts of the Central Provinces and Berar. But around them lay fourteen princely states, Bastar, Surguja, Raigarh, Kanker and others, whose rulers were now legally free to choose their own future. Within five months, on 1 January 1948, all fourteen had merged into the province. In the north-west and east of the subcontinent the same weeks saw borders drawn through Punjab and Bengal and millions of people uprooted.
How did freedom and partition arrive together, and how was a country of provinces and more than 500 princely states stitched into one?
Why it matters: Prelims asks the sequence of plans (C.R. Formula 1944 → Wavell 1945 → Cabinet Mission 1946 → Attlee’s statement → Mountbatten Plan 1947) and the provisions of the Independence Act. Mains asks “Why partition?” and “Assess Sardar Patel’s role in integration”.
Attempts at a Settlement (1944–1945)
| Event | Date | Key facts |
|---|---|---|
| C.R. Formula | 1944 | By C. Rajagopalachari: the League would back the independence demand and join a provisional government; after the war a commission would demarcate contiguous Muslim-majority districts, where a plebiscite of all adults would decide on separation; defence, commerce and communications to be shared. Jinnah rejected it (he wanted the League alone to decide, and full provinces) |
| Gandhi-Jinnah talks | September 1944 | Held in Bombay on the basis of the C.R. Formula; failed |
| Wavell Plan and Simla Conference | June–July 1945 | Viceroy Lord Wavell proposed an Executive Council of all Indians except the Viceroy and the Commander-in-Chief, with equal numbers of caste Hindus and Muslims. It failed because Jinnah insisted that the League alone nominate all Muslim members |
| Labour government in Britain | July 1945 | Clement Attlee became Prime Minister; Labour was more willing to transfer power |
| End of the war | August 1945 | Japan surrendered |
| Elections | Winter 1945–46 | Congress swept the general seats; the Muslim League won the great majority of Muslim seats, strengthening its claim to speak for Muslims |
Post-War Upsurge (1945–1946)
INA trials (Red Fort, November 1945)
- The first trial at the Red Fort, Delhi, was of three INA officers: Shah Nawaz Khan, Prem Kumar Sahgal and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon, a Muslim, a Hindu and a Sikh. Their choice united all communities in protest.
- The defence team included Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Asaf Ali, K.N. Katju and Jawaharlal Nehru, who wore a barrister’s gown again for the first time in decades.
- The officers were convicted, but their sentences were remitted by the Commander-in-Chief under the weight of public pressure.
Royal Indian Navy mutiny (February 1946)
- Began on 18 February 1946 among ratings of HMIS Talwar in Bombay, over poor food, racial discrimination and the INA trials; it spread to Karachi, Calcutta, Madras and other bases.
- Ratings hoisted Congress, League and Communist flags together.
- It ended within days when the ratings surrendered on the advice of Vallabhbhai Patel (and Jinnah). The Congress leadership did not back it, preferring negotiation.
Why these events mattered
The INA trials and the RIN mutiny showed that the armed forces, the last pillar of British rule, could no longer be counted on. Together with Britain’s economic exhaustion after the war, this made a negotiated withdrawal unavoidable.
The Cabinet Mission (कैबिनेट मिशन), 1946
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Members | Lord Pethick-Lawrence (Secretary of State for India), Sir Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander |
| Arrived | March 1946 |
| Plan announced | 16 May 1946 |
The plan
- Rejected a sovereign Pakistan, judging it would still contain large non-Muslim minorities and be unviable.
- Three-tier structure: a weak Union (foreign affairs, defence, communications), groups of provinces, and provinces with all residuary powers.
- Grouping for constitution-making:
- Group A: Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar, Orissa (Hindu-majority)
- Group B: Punjab, NWFP, Sind (Muslim-majority, north-west)
- Group C: Bengal, Assam (east)
- A Constituent Assembly to be elected at once by the provincial assemblies (by proportional representation), with seats for the princely states.
- An interim government of Indian leaders.
Responses: The League accepted the plan (June 1946), reading compulsory grouping as the seed of Pakistan. The Congress accepted the long-term plan but objected to compulsory grouping. When Nehru said in July 1946 that the Congress would enter the Constituent Assembly “unfettered by agreements”, the League withdrew its acceptance (July 1946).
Direct Action and the slide to partition
- The League called for “Direct Action Day” on 16 August 1946 to achieve Pakistan. It led to the Great Calcutta Killings, followed by violence in Noakhali (East Bengal), Bihar and later Punjab.
- Interim Government (2 September 1946): headed by Jawaharlal Nehru as Vice-President of the Viceroy’s Executive Council. The League joined in October 1946 (Liaquat Ali Khan held Finance) but used its position to obstruct.
- Constituent Assembly: first met on 9 December 1946, boycotted by the League. Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was temporary chairman; Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected permanent President on 11 December. Nehru moved the Objectives Resolution on 13 December 1946.
- Gandhi walked village to village in Noakhali (from November 1946) to restore communal peace.
Chhattisgarh angle
The Central Provinces and Berar, which included the Chhattisgarh districts of Raipur, Bilaspur and Durg, were placed in Group A. A popular ministry returned to the province in April 1946 with Pt. Ravishankar Shukla as Premier. The fourteen Chhattisgarh princely states, outside British India, were dealt with separately during integration (below).
Attlee’s Statement and the Mountbatten Plan (1947)
Attlee’s statement, 20 February 1947
- British rule would end by June 1948.
- Power might be handed over to a central government or, where necessary, to provincial governments.
- Lord Mountbatten would replace Wavell; he was sworn in as Viceroy in March 1947.
Mountbatten (3 June) Plan
| Provision | Detail |
|---|---|
| Partition | India to be divided into two dominions, India and Pakistan |
| Punjab and Bengal | Their legislative assemblies would meet in two parts (Muslim-majority and other districts) and vote on partition; both voted to partition |
| Sind | Its assembly to decide which dominion to join |
| NWFP | Referendum (the Congress-led Khudai Khidmatgars boycotted it) |
| Sylhet (Assam) | Referendum; it chose East Bengal |
| Boundaries | Boundary Commissions for Punjab and Bengal |
| Princely states | Paramountcy lapses; states free to join either dominion or remain independent |
| Date | Transfer of power brought forward to 15 August 1947 |
The Congress accepted partition as the price of avoiding civil war and of securing a strong central government for the rest of India.
Indian Independence Act, 1947
- Passed by the British Parliament; royal assent on 18 July 1947.
- Created two independent dominions, India and Pakistan, from 15 August 1947.
- Each dominion’s Constituent Assembly was given full sovereign power to frame its constitution and to act as its legislature.
- Paramountcy lapsed; the title “Emperor of India” was dropped; the office of Secretary of State for India was abolished.
- Until the new constitutions came into force, each dominion was governed under an adapted Government of India Act, 1935.
- Lord Mountbatten became the first Governor-General of independent India; M.A. Jinnah became Governor-General of Pakistan.
The Radcliffe Line
- Sir Cyril Radcliffe chaired both Boundary Commissions (Punjab and Bengal), each with two Congress and two League nominee judges.
- He had never visited India before and had about five weeks to draw the lines.
- The awards were made public only on 17 August 1947, two days after independence, so millions did not know which country they were in on 15 August.
Freedom at midnight
- Pakistan celebrated independence on 14 August, India on 15 August 1947. Nehru’s “Tryst with Destiny” speech was delivered in the Constituent Assembly at midnight.
- Gandhi did not celebrate. He was in Calcutta, fasting and praying for communal peace; Mountbatten called him a “one-man boundary force”.
The human cost
Partition displaced an estimated 12–20 million people (estimates vary). Death toll estimates range widely, from about 200,000 to 2 million. Since 2021 the Government of India observes 14 August as Partition Horrors Remembrance Day (विभाजन विभीषिका स्मृति दिवस).
Why Did Partition Happen? (Mains analysis)
| Factor | Explanation |
|---|---|
| British policy | Separate electorates from 1909, the Communal Award (1932), and treating the League as the sole voice of Muslims hardened communal identities; the Cripps opt-out clause and Cabinet Mission grouping legitimised the idea of division |
| Communal politics | The League’s two-nation theory and the Lahore Resolution (1940); Hindu communal organisations also polarised opinion |
| Congress limitations | Failure to win over the Muslim masses after the Khilafat period; controversial episodes such as the refusal of a coalition with the League in the UP in 1937 are often cited |
| The war years | With the Congress in jail (1942–45), the League expanded unchecked; the 1945–46 elections confirmed its hold on Muslim seats |
| Violence | Direct Action Day (1946) and riots in Bengal, Bihar and Punjab made coexistence in one state look impossible to many leaders |
| Haste | Attlee’s deadline and Mountbatten’s advancement of the date to August 1947 left no time for orderly transfer of populations and assets |
Balanced conclusion: Partition was not inevitable in 1940, but by 1947 the Congress accepted it to avoid civil war and to keep a strong centre for the rest of India; responsibility is shared among British policy, communal politics and the failure of compromise.
Integration of the Princely States (रियासतों का एकीकरण)
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| States Department | Set up in July 1947, under Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, with V.P. Menon as Secretary |
| Instrument of Accession | Rulers ceded only defence, external affairs and communications to India |
| Standstill Agreement | Kept existing arrangements going until details were settled |
| Result | By 15 August 1947, almost all states had acceded; three cases needed special handling |
| Hard case | What happened |
|---|---|
| Junagadh | The Nawab acceded to Pakistan against the wishes of his Hindu-majority subjects; after Indian action, a plebiscite (February 1948) went overwhelmingly for India |
| Hyderabad | The Nizam sought independence; the Razakars spread violence; Indian police action (“Operation Polo”), September 1948 ended it |
| Jammu and Kashmir | Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession on 26 October 1947 after a tribal invasion backed by Pakistan |
After accession came merger: smaller states were merged into neighbouring provinces or grouped into new unions, and the rulers received privy purses (abolished by the 26th Amendment, 1971).
Chhattisgarh angle: the merger of 1 January 1948
The 14 princely states of Chhattisgarh (Bastar, Kanker, Surguja, Korea, Chang Bhakar, Jashpur, Udaipur, Raigarh, Sarangarh, Sakti, Nandgaon (Rajnandgaon), Khairagarh, Chhuikhadan and Kawardha) were brought together after Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon met their rulers at Nagpur on 15 December 1947, and they merged into the Central Provinces and Berar on 1 January 1948. Bastar, Surguja and Raigarh became new districts. Details: British Rule, Princely States and Zamindaris and Feudatory States and Zamindaris.
30 January 1948: Gandhi was assassinated in Delhi by Nathuram Godse.
Memory Tricks
The endgame in order: C-W-C-A-M
C.R. Formula (1944) → Wavell Plan (1945) → Cabinet Mission (1946) → Attlee’s statement (Feb 1947) → Mountbatten Plan (June 1947).
“Congress Waited, Compromised, Accepted Mountbatten.”
Cabinet Mission members: P-C-A
Pethick-Lawrence, Cripps, Alexander: “Please Call All.”
INA trial trio: S-S-D
Shah Nawaz Khan, Sahgal, Dhillon: one Muslim, one Hindu, one Sikh, which is why the whole country rallied.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Cabinet Mission (1946): rejected Pakistan; grouping | vs | Mountbatten Plan (1947): accepted partition |
| Attlee’s statement: deadline June 1948 | vs | Mountbatten: advanced the date to 15 August 1947 |
| Indian Independence Act: royal assent 18 July 1947 | vs | Radcliffe Award: published 17 August 1947 |
| Junagadh: plebiscite | vs | Hyderabad: police action (Operation Polo) |
| First Governor-General of India: Mountbatten | vs | Pakistan’s first Governor-General: Jinnah |
Common Mistakes
Trap 1: The Cabinet Mission did not propose partition
It rejected a sovereign Pakistan and proposed a three-tier federation. Partition came with the Mountbatten Plan of 3 June 1947.
Trap 2: The Constituent Assembly was not directly elected
Under the Cabinet Mission Plan its members were indirectly elected by the provincial assemblies (and nominated for the princely states), not by universal adult franchise.
Trap 3: The boundary awards came after independence
Radcliffe’s awards were published on 17 August 1947, not before 15 August.
Practice
These are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The three members of the Cabinet Mission were Pethick-Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and ______.
- The Muslim League observed “Direct Action Day” on ______.
- The princely states of Chhattisgarh merged into the Central Provinces and Berar on ______.
Answers
- A.V. Alexander.
- 16 August 1946.
- 1 January 1948.
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements about the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):
- It recommended the creation of a sovereign Pakistan.
- It proposed that the Constituent Assembly be elected by the provincial legislative assemblies.
- It placed the Central Provinces in the same group as Madras, Bombay and the United Provinces.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(c) 2 and 3 only. The Mission rejected a sovereign Pakistan. The Constituent Assembly was indirectly elected by the provincial assemblies, and the Central Provinces were in Group A with Madras, Bombay, UP, Bihar and Orissa.
Q2. Match List-I (Event) with List-II (Year/date):
| List-I | List-II |
|---|---|
| A. Wavell Plan (Simla Conference) | 1. February 1946 |
| B. RIN mutiny | 2. 1945 |
| C. Attlee’s statement on withdrawal | 3. 3 June 1947 |
| D. Mountbatten Plan | 4. 20 February 1947 |
- (a) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
- (b) A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
- (c) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
- (d) A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
Answer and explanation
(a) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3. Simla Conference June–July 1945; RIN mutiny from 18 February 1946; Attlee’s statement 20 February 1947 (a year apart from the mutiny, a common trap); Mountbatten Plan 3 June 1947.
Q3. Which of the following was not a provision of the Indian Independence Act, 1947?
- (a) Lapse of British paramountcy over the princely states
- (b) Abolition of the office of Secretary of State for India
- (c) Election of the Constituent Assembly on the basis of universal adult franchise
- (d) Constituent Assemblies of the two dominions to act as their legislatures
Answer and explanation
(c). The Constituent Assembly already existed (elected indirectly in 1946 under the Cabinet Mission Plan). The Act made it sovereign and its dominion’s legislature, ended paramountcy and abolished the Secretary of State for India.
Q4. The three INA officers tried together at the Red Fort in 1945 were:
- (a) Mohan Singh, Shah Nawaz Khan, Lakshmi Swaminathan
- (b) Shah Nawaz Khan, Prem Kumar Sahgal, Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon
- (c) Prem Kumar Sahgal, Rash Behari Bose, Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon
- (d) Bhulabhai Desai, Shah Nawaz Khan, Prem Kumar Sahgal
Answer and explanation
(b). Shah Nawaz Khan, Sahgal and Dhillon (a Muslim, a Hindu and a Sikh). Bhulabhai Desai was the leading defence counsel, not an accused.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (150–200 words) Why did the Indian National Congress, long committed to a united India, accept partition in 1947?
Model answer outline
- Intro: The Congress opposed the two-nation theory throughout, yet accepted the Mountbatten Plan on 3 June 1947.
- Body:
- League’s mandate: the 1945–46 elections gave the League most Muslim seats.
- Failure of the Cabinet Mission: disputes over grouping; League’s withdrawal and Direct Action (16 August 1946).
- Communal violence: Calcutta, Noakhali, Bihar, Punjab; fear of civil war.
- Deadlock in the Interim Government: League ministers obstructed governance.
- Strong centre: partition removed the League’s veto and allowed a strong central government for the rest of India; British deadlines (Attlee, Mountbatten) forced a quick choice.
- Chhattisgarh angle: For regions like Chhattisgarh, a strong centre made the rapid integration of the 14 princely states (1 January 1948) possible.
- Conclusion: Acceptance was a painful, pragmatic choice to secure freedom and stability; Gandhi and Ghaffar Khan remained opposed.
Q2. (150–200 words) Assess the role of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel in the integration of the princely states.
Model answer outline
- Intro: Over 500 states, with paramountcy lapsing on 15 August 1947, threatened India’s unity.
- Body:
- States Department (July 1947) with V.P. Menon; Instrument of Accession limited to three subjects and a Standstill Agreement made accession easy.
- Persuasion and patriotism: appeals to rulers, privy purses and guarantees of privileges.
- Firmness: Junagadh (plebiscite 1948), Hyderabad (Operation Polo, September 1948).
- Second stage, merger: small states merged into provinces or unions; democratisation of administration.
- Chhattisgarh angle: Patel’s meeting with the rulers at Nagpur (15 December 1947) led to the merger of the 14 Chhattisgarh states into CP and Berar on 1 January 1948.
- Conclusion: Patel’s mix of persuasion and pressure gave India its territorial unity, earning him the title “Iron Man of India”.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| C.R. Formula | 1944, Rajagopalachari; plebiscite in Muslim-majority districts |
| Gandhi-Jinnah talks | September 1944, failed |
| Wavell Plan / Simla Conference | June–July 1945; failed over League’s sole right to nominate Muslims |
| INA trials | November 1945, Red Fort; Shah Nawaz, Sahgal, Dhillon; Bhulabhai Desai |
| RIN mutiny | 18 February 1946, HMIS Talwar, Bombay |
| Cabinet Mission | March 1946; plan 16 May 1946; Pethick-Lawrence, Cripps, Alexander |
| Groups | A (Hindu-majority incl. CP), B (Punjab, NWFP, Sind), C (Bengal, Assam) |
| Direct Action Day | 16 August 1946 |
| Interim Government | 2 September 1946, Nehru |
| Constituent Assembly first meets | 9 December 1946 |
| Attlee’s statement | 20 February 1947; leave by June 1948 |
| Mountbatten Plan | 3 June 1947 |
| Indian Independence Act | Royal assent 18 July 1947 |
| Independence | Pakistan 14 August, India 15 August 1947 |
| Radcliffe Award | Published 17 August 1947 |
| States Department | July 1947, Patel and V.P. Menon |
| J&K accession | 26 October 1947 |
| Chhattisgarh states merge | 1 January 1948, into CP and Berar |
| Gandhi assassinated | 30 January 1948 |
| Operation Polo (Hyderabad) | September 1948 |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- After the war, the INA trials and RIN mutiny showed that Britain could no longer rely on its forces; a Labour government was ready to leave.
- The Cabinet Mission (1946) was the last attempt at a united India; its collapse over grouping led to Direct Action and riots.
- The Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947) and the Indian Independence Act (18 July 1947) created two dominions on 15 August 1947.
- Partition’s human cost was enormous; estimates of deaths and displacement vary widely, so quote ranges, not single figures.
- Patel and V.P. Menon integrated the princely states; Chhattisgarh’s 14 states merged on 1 January 1948.
What’s Next
- The Gandhian Era — Quick Revision — the whole chapter on one page
- Constituent Assembly — how the assembly elected in 1946 framed the Constitution
- British Rule, Princely States and Zamindaris — the 14 states and their merger
- Formation of the State and Administrative Structure — from CP and Berar to Madhya Pradesh and then Chhattisgarh (2000)
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